Oceans, Forests & Natural Resources
Deep-Sea Mining
The race to mine metals from the ocean floor, the international body that regulates it, and the debate over its environmental risks.
Scattered across parts of the deep ocean floor, thousands of metres below the surface, lie potato-sized lumps called polymetallic nodules. They contain valuable metals such as nickel, cobalt, copper and manganese, all important for batteries and the energy transition. Some companies and governments want to mine them.
Who controls the deep sea?
Most of the deep seabed lies beyond any country’s jurisdiction. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, its mineral resources are described as the “common heritage of mankind”. The International Seabed Authority, based in Jamaica, regulates exploration and mining there. It has issued exploration contracts to governments and companies, including India, which holds exploration rights in the Indian Ocean and runs a Deep Ocean Mission.
The Authority has spent years negotiating rules for commercial mining, but has not yet finalised them.
The economic case
Supporters argue that:
- Demand for battery metals is rising fast.
- Land-based mining causes deforestation, pollution and human rights problems in some places.
- Nodules contain several metals in one place, possibly at lower environmental cost than land mines.
The environmental concerns
Scientists warn that:
- Deep-sea ecosystems are poorly understood, and many species there have not yet been described.
- Mining would destroy habitats that could take a very long time, possibly centuries or more, to recover.
- Sediment plumes could spread damage beyond mined areas.
Many countries have called for a pause or moratorium until more is known, applying the precautionary principle: avoiding actions with potentially serious, irreversible harm when evidence is uncertain.
The Clarion-Clipperton Zone in the Pacific Ocean, between Hawaii and Mexico, holds some of the richest nodule fields in the world. The International Seabed Authority has issued many exploration contracts there. Scientific surveys in the area have found large numbers of species new to science, highlighting how much could be lost before it is even understood.
The debate over speed
In 2025, the United States government moved to allow companies to pursue deep-sea mining permits under U.S. law, outside the International Seabed Authority’s process, drawing criticism from many other countries. The episode highlighted tensions between the race for minerals and international governance.
The deep sea is home to unique ecosystems and many undiscovered species. Treating it as an empty space for mining ignores values that are hard to measure but potentially irreplaceable.
- Polymetallic nodules on the deep seabed contain nickel, cobalt, copper and manganese.
- The International Seabed Authority regulates mining beyond national jurisdiction.
- Supporters cite rising demand and problems with land mining; scientists warn of irreversible harm.
- Many countries favour a pause under the precautionary principle.
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