Waste and Sanitation in India
Are the Toilets Being Used?
What surveys and researchers found about whether new toilets are used, why some people still defecate in the open, and the lessons for sanitation policy.
After India was declared open defecation free in 2019, a key question was whether all toilets were being used.
Survey evidence
- The government’s National Annual Rural Sanitation Surveys reported very high toilet access and use.
- National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), from 2019-21, found that a significant share of households still reported no toilet facility or open defecation, lower than before but not zero.
- Independent researchers, such as the Research Institute for Compassionate Economics (r.i.c.e.), found in some states that open defecation had fallen sharply but remained among some people who had toilets.
Why some people don’t use toilets
- Pit size concerns: fears that small pits fill quickly and must be emptied, linked to caste stigma around handling faeces.
- Water shortages.
- Habits and preferences.
- Poor construction or unfinished toilets.
- Household size: some family members use toilets, others don’t.
Why it matters
Health benefits depend on everyone in a community using toilets. Even a few people defecating in the open can spread disease.
Lessons
- Behaviour change and social norms matter as much as construction.
- Independent measurement helps check official claims.
- Maintenance, water and pit emptying services are needed.
A household builds a toilet with SBM support but uses it only for storage, worried about the pit filling. After community health workers explain twin-pit designs and safe emptying, family members start using it.
Surveys found open defecation fell sharply but didn't disappear entirely.
- Official surveys reported high toilet use after 2019.
- NFHS-5 and independent studies found some open defecation persisted.
- Pit concerns, water, habits and construction affect use.
- Behaviour change and maintenance are as important as building toilets.
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