Son Preference and Missing Women

Why preference for sons has skewed sex ratios in India and other countries, the economic reasons behind it, and the policies trying to change it.

In most populations, about 105 boys are born for every 100 girls, and women tend to live longer than men. But in some countries, including India and China, the ratio of boys to girls has been unusually high. This reflects son preference.

Missing women

In 1990, economist Amartya Sen wrote that “more than 100 million women are missing” worldwide, meaning that there were far fewer women than would be expected given normal patterns of births and survival. Causes include:

Sex-selective abortion, enabled by ultrasound technology.
Neglect of girls in nutrition and health care, leading to higher death rates.

The data in India

India’s child sex ratio, girls aged 0 to 6 per 1,000 boys, fell to 918 in the 2011 Census, among the lowest recorded. More recent data suggest the sex ratio at birth has improved somewhat, but it remains skewed in several states.

Economic reasons for son preference

Old-age support: in many families, sons are expected to support parents, while daughters marry into other households.
Dowry: the cost of dowry makes daughters seem financially burdensome.
Inheritance and property: land often passes to sons.
Labour and status: sons may be valued for farm work or family businesses.

Falling fertility

Economist Seema Jayachandran and others found that as families have fewer children, son preference can lead to more sex selection, since families that want a son have fewer chances to have one.

Policies

The PCPNDT Act, 1994 bans sex determination tests, though enforcement has been difficult.
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, launched in 2015, promotes the value of girls and their education.
Conditional cash transfers for girls, such as state schemes paying families when daughters reach milestones.
Equal inheritance rights for daughters.

Consequences

Skewed sex ratios can lead to marriage squeezes, where many men cannot find partners, with possible effects on crime and migration for marriage.

The family planning choice

A couple wants two children, including at least one son. Their first child is a daughter. Under social and economic pressure, some families in this situation turn to illegal sex determination, contributing to skewed ratios across a region.

Thinking son preference is purely cultural and unchangeable

Economic factors like old-age support, dowry and inheritance drive son preference. Changing these incentives and women's economic roles can reduce it.

Key takeaways

Amartya Sen estimated over 100 million missing women worldwide in 1990.
India's child sex ratio fell to 918 girls per 1,000 boys in 2011.
Old-age support, dowry and inheritance drive son preference.
Laws, campaigns, cash transfers and inheritance reforms aim to change it.